The Other Translation Procedures

While translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used foi sentences and the smaller units of language. Since literal translation is the most important of the procedures, we have discussed it in a separate chapter (Chapter 7). We shall now discuss the other procedures, whose use always depends on a variety of contextual factors. We shall not discuss here the special procedures for metaphoi and metalanguage.
TRANSFERENCE
Transference (emprunt, loan word, transcription) is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure. It is the same as Catford's trans­ference, and includes transliteration, which relates to the conversion of differeni alphabets: e.g. Russian (Cyrillic), Greek, Arabic, Chinese, etc. into English. The word then becomes a `loan word'. Some authorities deny that this is a translatior. procedure, but no other term is appropriate if a translator decides to use an SL word for his text, say for English and the relevant language, dc4c;or, ambiance, Schadenfreude; the French diplomatic words: coup d'etat, detente, coup, attentat, demarche; dachshund, samovar, dacha, or for German Image, Job, `last but noi least'. However, when the translator has to decide whether or not to transfer a worc unfamiliar in the target language, which in principle should be a SL cultural worc whose referent is peculiar to the SL culture (see Chapter 9), then he usuall5 complements it with a second translation procedure - the two procedures ir harness are referred to as a `couplet'. Generally, only cultural `objects' or concept: related to a small group or cult should be transferred; the vogue for transferring sc called `national characteristics' (Gemutlichkeit, machismo, dolce vita) should be abandoned. Needless to say, in principle, the names of SL objects, inventions devices, processes to be imported into the TL community should be creatively preferably `authoritatively', translated, if they are neologisms, although branc names have to be transferred. It is not the translator's job to assist any SL advertiser's financial, national or personal prestige interests. At the same time, on( cannot be rigid or dogmatic. The media, the experts, will be transferring word : whether the translators like it or not. Perhaps when the translator's professional status is raised, they will not be transferring so many.
The following are normally transferred: names of all living (except the Pope and one or two royals) and most dead people; geographical and topographical names including newly independent countries such as (ie) Zaire, Malawi, unless they already have recognised translations (see Naturalisation below); names of periodicals and newspapers; titles of as yet untranslated literary works, plays, films; names of priuate companies and institutions; names of public or nationalised institutions, unless they have recognised translations; street names, addresses, etc. (rue Thaibaut; `in the Rue Thaibaut'). '
In all the above cases, a similar type of readership is assumed and, where appropriate, a culturally-neutral TL third term, i.e. a functional equivalent, should be added.
In regional novels and essays (and advertisements, e.g., gites), cultural words are often transferred to give local colour, to attract the reader, to give a sense of intimacy between the text and the reader - sometimes the sound or the evoked image appears attractive. These same words have to be finally translated in non­literary texts (e.g. on agriculture, housing) if they are likely to remain in the TL culture and/or the target language.
There are often problems with the translation of 'semi-cultural' words, that is abstract mental words which are associated with a particular period, country or individual e.g., `maximalism', `Enlightenment', Sartre's `nothing-ness' (neant) or Heidegger's Dasein. In principle, such words should first be translated, with, if necessary, the transferred word and the functional equivalent added in brackets, until you are confident that your readership recognises and understands the word. Unfortunately such terms are often transferred for snob reasons: `foreign' is posh, the word is untranslatable. B,.,.t the translator's role is to make people understand ideas (objects are not so important), not to mystify by using vogue-words. Freud's formidable key-terms may have been mistranslated, but at least they were trans­lated. The argument in favour of transference is that it shows respect for the SL country's culture. The argument against it is that it is the translator's job to translate, to explain.

NATURALISATION
This procedure succeeds transference and adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL, e.g. Edimbourgh, humeur, redingote, thatcherisme. Note, for German, Performanz, attraktiv, Eskalation.
CULTURAL EQUIVALENT
This is an approximate translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word; thus baccalaureat is translated as `(the French) "A" level', or Abitur (Matura) as `(the German/Austrian) "A" level'; Palais Bourbon as `(the French) Westminster'; Montecitorio as `(the Italian) Westminster'; charcuterie - `delicates­sen' (now English `deli'); notaire -'solicitor'. The above are approximate cultural equivalents. Their translation uses are limited, since they are not accurate, but they can be used in general texts, publicity and eropaganda, as well as for brief explanation to readers who are ignorant of the relevant SL culture. They have a greater pragmatic impact than culturally neutral terms. Occasionally, they may be purely functionally, hardly descriptively, equivalents, e.g., le cyclisme, `cricket', 'baseball'; `tea break', cafe-pause; carte d'identite, `car licence'. Functional cultural equivalents are even more restricted in translation, but they may occasionally he used it` the term is of little importance in a popular article or popular fiction. They are important in drama, as they can create an immediate effect. `He met her in the pub'- 11 l' a retrouvie dans le cafe. Or again, vingt metres derriere lui -'twenty yards behind him'. However, the main purpose of the procedure is to support or supplement another translation procedure in a couplet.

FUNCTIONAL EQUIVALENT
This common procedure, applied to cultural words, requires the use of a culture­free word, sometimes with a new specific term; it therefore neutralises or general­ises the SL word; and sometimes adds a particular thus: baccalaureat - `French secondary school leaving exam'; Sejm -'Polish parliament'; `Roget' - dictionnaire ideologique anglais.
This procedure, which is a cultural componential analysis, is the most accurate way of translating i.e. deculturalising a cultural word.
A similar procedure is used when a SL technical word has no TL equivalent. Thus the English term `cot death' translates as mort subite d'un nourrisson, although the components `unexpected' and `without known reason' are here omitted from the French.
This procedure occupies the middle, sometimes the universal, area between the SL language or culture and the TL language or culture. If practised one to one, it is an under-translation (e.g. degringoler as `tumble'). If practised one to two, it may be an over-translation. For cultural terms, it is often combined with trans­ference: taille, as `a tax on the common people before the French Revolution, or taille'. I refer to the combination of two translation procedures for one unit as a `couplet'.
DESCRIPTIVE EQUIVALENT
In translation, description sometimes has to be weighed against function. Thus for machete, the description is a `Latin American broad, heavy instrument', the function is `cutting or aggression'; description and function are combined in `knife'. Samurai is described as `the Japanese aristocracy from the eleventh to the nineteenth century'; its function was `to provide officers and administrators'. Description and function are essential elements in explanation and therefore in translation. In translation discussion, function used to be neglected; now it tends to be overplayed.

SYNONYMY
I use the word `synonym' in the sense of a near TL equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not exist. This procedure is used for a SL word where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and the word is not important in the text, in particular for adjectives or adverbs of quality (which in principle are `outside' the grammar and less important than other components of a sentence): thus personne gentille, `kind' person; conte piquant, `racy story'; `awkward' or `fussy', difficile; `puny effort', effort faible. A synonym is only appropriate where literal translation is not possible and because the word is not important enough for cvamponential analysis. Here economy precedes accuracy.
A translator cannot do without synonymy; he has to make do with it as a compromise, in order to translate more important segments of the text, segments of the meaning, more accurately. But unnecessary use of synonyms is a mark of many poor translations.
THROUGH-TRANSLATION
The literal translation of common collocations, names of organisations, the com­ponents of compounds (e. g. `superman', Ubermensch) and perhaps phrases (compliments de la saison, `compliments of the season'), is known as calque or loan translation. I prefer the more transparent term 'through-translation'.
In theory, a translator should not `initiate' a through-translation. In fact, through-translations in contiguous cultures sometimes fill in useful gaps, and perhaps it is time that `Good appetite', 'through-compose', `leading motif , `relaxation' (for detente), `no longer the youngest', `birthday child', should finally enter familiar English. The most obvious examples of through-translations are the names of international organisations which often consist of `universal' words which may be transparent for English and Romance languages, and semantically moti­vated for Germanic and Slavonic: e.g., EEC, Communaute Economique Europeenne, Europaische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft (EtVG, now EG); European Cultural Convention, Convention culturelle europeenne; groupe d'etudes, `study group' but Arbeitsgruppe; `working party', commission d'enquete, Arbeitsausschuss.
International organisations are often known by their acronyms, which may remain English and ir.ternationalisms (UNESCO, UNRRA, FAO) or French FIT (International Federation of Translators), but more often switch in various languages (ILO, BIT (F), IAO (G); WHO, OMS (F), WGO (G); NATO, OTAN (F), NATO (G)).
Translated brochures, guide-books and tourist material are apt to pullulate with incorrect through-translations: `highest flourishing', `programme building', etc., which are evidence of translationese.
Normally, through-translations should be used only when they are already recognised terms.




SHIFTS OR TRANSPOSITIONS

A `shift' (Catford's term) or `transposition' (Vinay and Darbelnet) is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL. One type, the change from singular to plural, e.g. `furniture'; des meubles; `applause', des applaudis­sements; `advice', des conseils; or in the position of the adjective: la maison blanche, ,the white house' is automatic and offers the translator no choice.
A second type of shift is required when an SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. Here there are always options. Thus for the neutral adjective as subject, l'interessany c'est que; das Interessante ist, daJS, l'interessante e che . . ., there is a choice of at least: `What is interesting is that . . .', `The interesting thing is that . . ', `It's interesting that . . .', `The interest of the matter is that . . .'. (But for French and Italian, it may be `valuable' or `useful' depending on the various contextual factors.) Again the English gerund (`Working with you is a pleasure') offers many choices. The gerund can be translated by verb-noun (le travail, die Arbeit), or a subordinate clause (`when, if, etc. I work with you'), with a recast main clause, or, in some languages, a noun-infinitive (e.g. das Arbeiten, which is formal style), or an infinitive.
I think the gerund is the most neglected of all translator's transpositions, e.g., Wenn Humboldt den Auftrag . . . erhielt, so waren das mehreren Faktoren zu danken - `Several factors were responsible for Humboldt's receiving the commis­sion'. Note also the English `do' auxiliary, `do come': komm doch (or mal); viens donc. French has `venir de' plus the infinitive: il vient de le faire is usually translated by `recently' or `just'. Again, Italian's reflexive infinitives (per il precisarsi degli effetti negativi, `by stating the negative effects', `when the negative effects are stated'; il suo espandersi, `its expansion', `the process of its expansion'; l'esserci imbattuta in un caso, `since we have come upon a case', `the fact that we have come upon a case') offer several choices. German has active or passive participial con­structions which are normally translated by adjectival clause or non-finite partici­pial clauses. Thus Bei jeder sich bietenden Gelegenheit may be: `At every opportunity that occurs' or `At every available opportunity' or `Whenever the opportunity occurs' or `At every opportunity' (taking sich bieten as an empty verb). Again, Im Sinn der von der Regierung verfolgten Ziele (Wilss, 1982) may be `In accordance with the aims pursued by the government', `In accordance with the aims which the government are pursuing' or `in accordance with the government's aims' - the three translations indicate a different degree of emphasis.
The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with natural usage in the TL. Here Vinay and Darbelnet's pioneering book and a host of successors give their preferred trans­lations, but often fail to list alternatives, which may be more suitable in other contexts or may merely be a matter of taste. (Grammar, being more flexible and general than lexis, can normally be more freely handled.)
Thus, for SL verb, TL adverb: Notre commerce avec I'etranger n'a cesse de s'ameliorer, `Our foreign trade has improved steadily (continuously)', `Our foreign trade has shown continuous improvement'; Il ne tardera pas d rentrer, `He will come back soon', `He'll be back (return) in a moment (shortly)'; La situation reste critique, `The situation is still critical', `The situation remains critical'.
In other cases Vinay and Darbelnet, sometimes rather arbitrarily, offer one out of many possible translations; there is nothing wrong with this, but they should have stated the fact. The translator is always concerned with questions of currency and probability, and there is a great difference between Des son lever, `as soon as he gets up', where lever shows up an English lexical gap and therefore the translation has a high degree of probability, and Des qu'on essaie d'etre arbitraire, on est tout de suite aux prises avec des contradictiono'Any attempt to be arbitrary at once involves one in inconsistencies', where ten translators might produce ten different versions, and the semi-literal translation: `As soon as one tries to be arbitrary, one is immediately faced with contradictions' ought, at first sight, to be the most probable. But Vinay and Darbelnet's prejudice against literal translation (admirably discussed in Wilss, 1982) has become notorious and has had a baneful influence on translation teaching if not translation. Incidentally, the last example contains several transpositions in Vinay and Darbelnet's version:
SL verb, TL noun (essaie, `attempt')
SL conjunction, TL indefinite adjective (des que, `any')
SL clause, TL noun group (des qu'on essaie, `any attempt')
SL verb group, TL verb (est aux prises, `involves')
SL noun group, TL noun (des contradictions, `inconsistencies')
SL complex sentence, TL simple sentence (etc!)
However, the fact that it is not possible to strictly standardise transpositions in the way that Vinay and Darbelnet do, since so many overlap and convert to lexis (what Catford calls 'level-shifts' e.g., apres sa mort, `after she had died'), in no way detracts from their usefulness, and you should become sensitised to their possi­bilities.
Further, there are a number of standard transpositions from Romance languages to English which are worth noting even though they all have alternative translations:
SL adjective plus adjectival noun, TL adverb plus adjective: d'une importance exceptionnelle, `exceptionally large'
SL prepositional phrase, TL preposition: au terme de, `after' (cf. dans le cadre de, au niveau de, d 1'exception de, au depart de)
SL adverbial phrase, TL adverb: d'une maniere bourrue, `gruffly'
SL noun plus adjective of substance, TL noun plus noun: la cellule rterveuse, `nerve cell'
SL verb of motion, with en and present participle of description, TL verb of description plus preposition (Vinay and Datbelnet's `criss-cross' transposition): Il gagna la fenetre en rampant, `He crawled to the window'
SL verb, TL empty verb plus verb-noun: Il rit, `he gave a laugh'
SL noun plus (empty) past participle or adjectival clause (etc.) plus noun, TL noun plus preposition plus noun (the `house on the hill' construction): Le complot ourdi contre lui, `the plot against him'; la tour qui se dressait sur la colline, ,the tower on the hill'
SL participial clause (active and passive), TL adverbial clause or (occasionally) group
The fourth type of transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure, e.g. apres sa sortie, `after he'd gone out'; il le cloua au pilori, `he pilloried him'; il atteint le total, `it totals'; `he pioneered this drug', il a Jte Pun des pionniers de ce medicament.
Certain transpositions appear to go beyond linguistic differences and can be regarded as general options available for stylistic consideration. Thus a complex sentence can normally be converted to a co-ordinate sentence, or to two simple sentences: Si lui est aimable, sa femme est arrogante- `He is (may be) very pleasant, but his wife is arrogant'- `He is pleasant; his wife, however, is arrogant'. This also works the other way round, although some would say that English, influenced by the King James Bible (Hebrew), prefers simple or co-ordinate to complex sentences.
Again many languages appear to be capricious in converting active verbs to animate nouns, thus: `He is a heavy drinker' - Il boit sec; La t8che d'un executeur fidele d'instructions regues -'The task of someone (one) who faithfully carries out the instructions they (he) have (has) received' (note the attempt to de-sex language); Une equipe de preleveurs- `A staff team to take (blood) samples'.
A group of typical transpositions centre on a Romance-language subject:
M. Tesniere, grammarien, m'a aide `M. Tesniere (who was) a grammarian, helped me'
Une fois parti, M. Tesrriere . . . `once (when) he had left, M. Tesniere . . .'
Ce livre, interessant, m'est venu a l'esprit - `The book, which was (as it was, though it was) interesting, came to my mind'
L'homme, qui faisait . . . -'The man doing ...
The last point I want to mention about transpositions is that they illustrate a frequent tension between grammar and stress. To take an example, should you translate Seine Aussage ist schlechthin unzutreffend by `His statement is (a) com­pletely false (one)' or `There is absolutely no truth in his statement'? My only comment is that too often the word order is changed unnecessarily, and it is sometimes more appropriate to translate with a lexical synonym, retain the word order and forgo the transposition in order to preserve the stress.
Transposition is the only translation procedure concerned with grammar, and most translators make transpositions intuitively. However, it is likely that comparative linguistics research, and analysis of text corpuses and their trans­lations, will uncover a further number of serviceable transpositions for us.

MODULATION

Vinay and Darbelnet coined the term `modulation' to define `a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective (eclairage) and very often of category of thought'. Standard modulations such as chateau d'eau, 'water-tower', are recorded in bilingual dictionaries. Free modulations are used by translators `when the TL rejects literal translation', which, by Vinay and Darbelnet's criteria, means virtually always. Further, modulations are divided into eleven rather random categories, whilst the - in my opinion- only important one, the `negated contrary' (sic), is not discussed.
As I see it, the general concept, since it is a super-ordinate term covering almost everything beyond literal translation, is not useful as it stands. However, the `negated contrary', which I prefer to call `positive for double negative' (or `double negative for positive') is a concrete translation procedure which can be applied in principle to any action (verb) or quality (adjective or adverb):
Il n'a pas hesite -'He acted at once'
Il n'est pas ldche -'He is extremely brave'
You will note that the translations are free, and in theory the double negative is not as forceful as the positive; in fact the force of the double negative depends on the tone of voice, and therefore the appropriateness of this modulation must depend on its formulation and the context.
In the few cases where there is a lexical gap in an opposition (e.g. `shallow'; peu profond), this modulation is virtually mandatory. In all other sentences the procedure is potentially available, but you should only use it when the translation is not natural unless you do so. Thus `minor' collocated with, say, `detail' seems to call for a translation such as sans importance, unbedeutend, although petit, klein, etc., remain as alternatives. Again, `it will not seem unlikely that' is perhaps best translated as il est fort probable que . . . In other cases, the procedure is merely a `candidate' for use, e.g. `He made it plain to him' - il ne le lui cacha pas, il le lui fit comprendre; `Men will not always die quietly' (J. M. Keynes) - Les hommes ne mourront pas toujours sans se plaindre; `no mean city' - cite qui West pas sans importance; `no mean performer on the violin'- il joue superieurement du violon.
Vinay and Darbelnet's second modulation procedure, `part for the whole', is rather misleadingly described; it consists of what I call familiar alternatives, viz. le 14 juillet (fete nationale); l'homme du 18 juin (De Gaulle); la fille ainee de l'Eglise (France); `Athens of the North' (Edinburgh).
The other modulation procedures are: (a) abstract for concrete (`sleep in the open', dormir a la belle etoile); (b) cause for effect (`You're quite a stranger', On ne vous Vol.it plus); (c) one part for another (`from cover to cover', de la premiere d la
derniere page); (d) reversal of terms (lebensgefkhrlich, danger de mort; n'appelez pas du bas de l'escalier, `don't call up the stairs'; assurance-maladie, `health insurance'); (e) active for passive; (f) space for time (`as this in itself (space) presented a difficulty', `cela presentant dejd (time) une difficulte); (g) intervals and limits; (h) change of symbols.
Of these procedures, `active for passive' (and vice versa) is a common transposition, mandatory when no passive exists, advisable where, say, a reflexive is normally preferred to a passive, as in the Romance languages. Reversal of terms
(Nida's `conversive' terms) is also a distinct procedure, usually optional for making language sound natural: 'buy/sell', 'lend/borrow', hauteur d'eau/`depth of water'; for English `loan' there are alternatives in other languages and creance translates `claim' as `credit' or `debt' depending on the point of view.
You will note that though I think Vinay's and Darbelnet's categorisation of modulation unconvincing, their abundant translation examples are always stimu­lating.
RECOGNISED TRANSLATION

You should normally use the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term. If appropriate, you can gloss it and, in doing so, indirectly show your disagreement with this official version. Thus Mitbestimmung (in management) has to be translated first as `co-determination'; Rechtsstaat as `constitutional state'. Personally I think `co-determination' is a poor translation of Mitbestimmung though it has the virtue of distinctiveness and brevity. (Compare the plainer but clumsier `employers' and workers' joint management'.) But it is now too late to change the term to `workers' participation', and if you did so in any official or serious informative text, you would cause confusion. Similarly, when translating Gay­Lussac's Volumengesetz der Gase it is no good giving it your own title or even a brief explanation; nothing but the accepted term (`law of combining volumes') will do.
TRANSLATION LABEL
This is a provisional translation, usually of a new institution allterm, which shoulc be made in inverted commas, which can later be discreetly withdrawn. It could bi done through literal translation, thus: `heritage language', Erhschaftssprache langue d'heritage.
COMPENSATION
This is said to occur when loss of meaning, sound-effect, metaphor or pragmatic effect in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in a contiguou: sentence.

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS (see Chapter 11)
This is the splitting up of a lexical unit into its sense components, often one-to-two. three or -four translations.
REDUCTION AND EXPANSION
These are rather imprecise translation procedures, which you practise intuitively in some cases, ad hoc in others. However, for each there is at least one shift which you may' like to bear in mind, particularly in poorly written texts:
SL adjective of substance plus general noun, TL noun: atteintes inflammatoires et infectieuses, `inflammations and infections'; science linguistique (etc.): `linguistics'.
For expansion, a not uncommon shift, often neglected, is SL adjective, English TL adverb plus past participle, or present participle plus object: cheveux egaux, `evenly cut hair'; belebend, `life-giving'.
PARAPHRASE
This is an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text. It is used in an `anonymous' text when it is poorly written, or has important implica­tions and omissions.
OTHER PROCEDURES
Vinay and Darbeinet also give:
EquWalence, an unfortunately named term implying approximate equivalence, accounting for the same situation in different terms. Judging from Vinay and Darbelnet's examples, they are simply referring to notices, familiar alterna­tives, phrases and idioms - in other words, different ways of rendering the ctiches and standard aspects of language, e.g. `The story so far', Resume des chapitres prJcedents.
Adaptation: use of a recognised equivalent between two situations. This is a matter of cultural equivalence, such as,~Dear Sir' translated as Monsieur; `Yours ever' as Amities.
Both the above illuminate what sometimes happens in the process of trans­lating, but they are not usable procedures.
As I see it, there are about fourteen procedures within a certain range of probability which are useful to the translator.
COUPLETS
Couplets, triplets, quadruplets combine two, three or four of the above-mentioned procedures respectively for dealing with a single problem. They are particularly common for cultural words, if transference is combined with a functional or a cultural equivalent. You can describe them as two or more bites at one cherry.
Quadruplets are only used for metalingual words: thus, if you translate the sentence: `The nominal-ing clause, a participial clause, occurs in the subject position', apart from a more or less literal translation of `nominal-ing clause', you might also: (a) transfer it; (b) explain, in an adjectival clause, that the present participle is used as a kind of gerund in English; (c) produce a translation label; (d) give an example, with TL literal and functional translations!
You will note my reluctance to list `paraphrase' as a translation procedure, since the word is often used to describe free translation. If it is used in the sense of `the minimal recasting of an ambiguous or obscure sentence, in order to clarify it', I accept it.
NOTES, ADDITIONS, GLOSSES
Lastly, here are some suggestions about `Notes' (when and when not to use them) or supplying additional information in a translation.
The additional information a translator may have to add to his version-is normally cultural (accounting for difference between SL and TL culture), tech­nical (relating to the topic) or linguistic (explaining wayward use of words), and is dependent on the requirement of his, as opposed to the original, readership. In expressive texts, such information can normally only be given outside the version, although brief `concessions' for minor cultural details can be made to the reader, e.g. perhaps by translating Hemingway's `at Handley's' by dans le bar Handley, in der Handley Bar, etc. In vocative texts, TL information tends to replace rather than supplement SL information. Thus if you translate `you can pay for ceramic tiles under a convenient credit purchase scheme' the latter term may be `translated' by the more precise `long-term payment facility'.


Additional information in the translation may take various forms:
1. Within the text
As an alternative to the translated word: e.g., la gabelle becomes `the gabelle, or salt-tax'.
As an adjectival clause: e.g., la taille becomes 'la taille, which was the old lev~taised in feudal times from the civilian population'.
As a noun in apposition: e.g., les traites becomes `the traites, customs dues
As a participial group: e.g., l'octroi becomes `I'octroi, taxes imposed on food stuffs and wine entering the town'.
In brackets, often for a literal translation of a transferred word: e.g. das Kombinat becomes `the kombinat (a "combine" or "trust")'.
In parentheses, the longest form of addition: e.g., aides becomes 'aides - these are excise dues on such things as drinks, tobacco, iron, precious metals and leather - were imposed in the eighteenth century'.
Classifier: e.g., Speyer, `the city of Speyer, in West Germany'.
Round brackets should include material that is part of the translation. Use square brackets to make corrections of material or moral fact where appropriate within the text.
Where possible, the additional information should be inserted within the text, since this does not interrupt the reader's flow of attention - translators tend to neglect this method too often. However, its disadvantage is that it blurs the distinction between the text and the translator's contribution, and it cannot be used for lengthy additions.
2.Notes at bottom of page
3.Notes at end of chapter
4.Notes or glossary at end of book
The remaining methods (2-4) are placed in order of preference, but notes at the bottom of the page become a nuisance when they are too lengthy and numerous; notes at the back of the book should be referenced with the book page numbers at the top - too often I find myself reading a note belonging to the wrong chapter. Notes at the end of the chapter are often irritating if the chapters are long since they take too long to find.
Normally, any information you find in a reference book should not be used to replace any statement or stretch of the text (unless the text does not correspond to the facts) hrn only to sryplerrwnr die text, where yc,a tliinl! tlic readers tire likely to find it inadequate, incomplete, or obscure. Thus I think it misguided to translate say La drepanorytose s'individualise par une anomalie particuliere de l'hemoglobine by 'Sickle-cell disease is distinguished by the fact that one amino-acid in the bent chain of the haemoglobin is out of place'. The emphasis of the text-sentence on `par­ticular abnormality' is lost, and the new information, accurate as it is, is unnecessary and is given later in the SL text. Certainly encyclopaedia articles often give information that reads like a paraphrase of the technical text that is being trans­lated, but the corresponding key-terms, not whole sentences, should be `lifted' from them. Similarly, when you consult an expert, be careful not to let him, with a professional flourish, rewrite the whole text for you, even if he produces a better text. His explanations and interpretations also~iave to be at least related to, if not (literally?) subjected to, a close translation of your text.
If you are translating an important book, you should not hesitate to write a preface and notes to discuss the usage and meanings of the author's terms, particularly where you sacrificed accuracy for economy in the translation, or where there is ambiguity in the text. In the case of a scholarly work, there is no reason why the reader should not be aware of the translator's informed assistance both in the work and the comment. The artistic illusion of your non-existence is unnecessary.