Establishing the Project

In chapter 5, the various aspects of a translation program were discussed briefly. The purpose of the following section is to elaborate on the matters discussed there.
Before any translation work is begun, the project must be defined. What is to be translated? By whom? With what resources? Or, using the terms introduced in chapter 5, the text, the target, the team and the tools must all be decided upon. One of the greatest hindrances to producing a good idiomatic translation is lack of adequate planning before the actual translation begins. In this chapter, we will discuss the four aspects of planning listed above. In chapter 36, translation procedures themselves will be discussed, in chapter 37, the testing of the translation and the final manuscript preparation will be discussed.

The text
Before any work on a translation is undertaken, the feasibility of the project and the desirability of the translation should be clear. What text is to be translated? Why has the particular text been chosen? Some translations are undertaken simply as a job. This is often true with technical translators. They are asked to translate a certain document four their employer. But many literary translators simply decide on a certain project which interests them and then pursue it. Why is a certain piece of literature chosen?
The questions which translators need to ask are questions like the following: Will it be read? By whom? What effect will it have on the audience? How long will it take to do the project? Are there people available to handle all aspects of the project? Is there money available? Who will publish it? Many translation projects have never been completed because these questions were not asked early in the program.
Texts are chosen to be translated for various reasons. Most often the reason is to communicate the information content of the source text to people who speak a language other than that of the source text. It may be information which is historical, political, religious, or which tells people how-t-do-it, or a travelogue about distant places, or facts important to the economic development of a country. The form of the source text may be that of a scientific article, instructions for the use of some medicine, business correspondence, a textbook, some folk tales, or one of many other possible text types.
However, the information content is not always foremost in the mind of the person planning to translate. Sometimes the reasons are based on the person’s enjoyment of the text. It is pleasing aesthetically-a poem, a novel, a mystery, story, an essay. It captures the attention of a translator and he wants to see it in another language, perhaps his own mother-tongue. He wants others to enjoy it also, others who do not know the language in which it is written. Whatever the reasons for desiring to translate a given text, the choice is related to questions about the target audience.

The Target Audience
No translation should be undertaken without a clear understanding of who will use it. It is not simply a matter of knowing that there are those who will use it. A good deal must be known about those who will use it. Questions of dialect, educational level, age level, and bilingualism, affect the form of the receptor language which will be chosen for the translation. One does not write with the same complexity of language for children, for example, as for highly educated adults. So, before the translation project begins, these matters should be carefully evaluated.
Once it has been determined that there is a need or desire for a given document to be translated into a given language, the question of dialects arises. A dialect is a speech variety within a language. There may be social dialects, dialects which vary because of the geographical spread of the language, and other differences based on educational level, age, occupation, and degree of bilingualism.
If a language is spoken by a large group of people scattered over a wide area, there will be several dialects. When one of these is the mother-tongue of the prospective translator, he will probably want to translate into his own dialect. Nevertheless, he should consider whether or not this choice will serve the larger number of people, if widespread usage is desireable. Is one dialect more central geographically, is it understood more easily by speakers of the other dialects? Is there a “common-language” (see Wonderly 1968:1-3) form which is understood by speakers of the various dialects? (For more details on dialect surveys see Casad, Eugene. 1974. Dialect Intelligibility Testing. Norman, OK: Summer Institute of Linguistics).
In addition to these dialect differences, there will be differences related to social levels. These social levels will depend on various factors in the society-level of education, occupation, or even based on the class into which one is born. Social levels are often accompanied by a difference in language forms and usage. The people for whom the translation is intended may be well educated or they may be new readers. What percent of the population reads? Will the translation be aimed at the educated only, or the new readers? Will it try to bridge the gap and be acceptable to both? Choices throughout the translation process will depend on the answer to these questions.
Is the purpose of the translation for personal reading, to be used in school, or for oral reading in church and home? The style appropriate for silent study in school may be different than that for oral reading in the church. Perhaps the translation is only for a small part of the population. It may be an article of interest to medical doctors. This would not be translated the same way as if it were for the general public, in which case less technical words would need to be used. A folk tale being translated for inclusion in a linguistic journal may not be the same as a translation of the same folk tale for inclusion in a book of stories to be read for entertainment.
The age of the audience will also affect the form of the translation. This was discussed in chapter 33, but needs to be mentioned here again. Will the translation be for children, for adolescents, or for adults? If it is aimed at a part of the population, rather than the public in general, this will effect many decisions in the translation process. The translator must have his audience in mind at all times as he translates.
The degree of bilingualism can also make a difference. Are most of the people who will use the translation bilingual in the source and receptor languages? If also, some key words may well be borrowed from the source language. If they are all monolinguals in the receptor language, great care will need to be taken in the selection of equivalents for key words. If there is a kind of mixture, in which people use both languages, but don’t keep them clearly separate, again, this may affect the forms chosen for the translation.
The relative prestige of the receptor language (or of different dialects within it) may affect the acceptance of the final product. If people have a negative feeling about a given language they may not want materials in that language, but prefer the language which has more prestige, even though they do not understand it as well. On the other hand, sometimes the production of materials in writing in a language may add a new prestige to that language. Will the translation enhance the use of the receptor language and its acceptance as a vehicle of communication? Are there government language policies which need to be taken into consideration?
What is the function of the receptor language? Is it used primarily as a personal language for thinking, dreaming, praying, and speaking to one’s immediate family, or is it used by the entire speech community for discussing whatever topic they might wish to discuss in the home, school, community, in correspondence, and on the radio?
Another matter of great importance is the target audience’s attitude of effort must be expended in arriving at an agreement on an alphabet for the project. It is crucial that this be done early, before much translation has been done. There have been cases where a book has been boycotted in a particular area because it contained spelling conventions that were unwelcome by the people there. It was impossible to sell the books. There are records of heated debates over orthographic systems which were tied to political or denominational groups. Very excellent books have been rejected by a community because the words were not “spelled right.” Gudschinsky (1969) says,

Unfortunately, the problem of orthography is one of the most explosive in the world. Differences about alphabets have frequently caused shooting wars, riots, and serious political division. In some languages, competing groups using different orthographies have actually perpetrated large competing literatures.

For some programs, the alphabet will already have been determined. If not, there are some basic principles which can be followed in deciding this important matter. First of all, an alphabet should be easy to read with a minimum of ambiguity. It needs to be well tested to be sure that it is indeed readable. It should also be socially acceptable. If the people reject the alphabet they will reject the book that is being translated. Social antagonism may come from members of the society who are bilingual or from people of status outside the linguistic community or even from government agencies. These matters should be checked out before the alphabet is finally decided upon. But there is also no point in modifying an alphabet to the point where it cannot be easily read.
Another important matter to consider in deciding on the alphabet is the practical matter of which keys are on typewriters and typesetting machines. If a letter or two need to be added to the typewriter or typesetting machines, this needs to be planned in advance and provision made for the adjustment.
Once the alphabet is settled on, there will still be the question of how individual words are spelled. There may be dialectical differences. Which spelling is to be used? When borrowed words are used, such as names of people and places, will the words be spelled with the official language spelling or will it be adapted to the language of the translation? If the translation is from a vernacular language into the official language, will the vernacular spelling be used or will it be modified to conform to the spelling forms of the official language? This needs to be planned ahead of time in order not to have to spend a lot of time later correcting inconsistencies. (For more detail on alphabet design see Smalley, 1963, and Gudschinsky, 1969)

The translation team
Some translation projects are done completely by one person. More often, a project involves a number of people who contribute at some stage in the project. Even if the project is basically the work of one person, the results will be better if there are others available for evaluation and consultation. Before the project is begun, those responsible for the project will need to assess the personnel available and the skills which they will bring to the project. Additional personnel may be needed.
Some member of the team, hopefully the translator, must be able to read, write and speak the source language. He must have a good understanding and ability to determine the meaning of the source document, there is little hope that the translation will be of good quality.
If the translator has only a fair knowledge of the source language and culture, he may still do a good translation if he has an advisor or consultant with whom he can discuss those parts of the document which he himself cannot interpret. In some translation projects such as biblical translation, there will be commentaries written about the source text which he can consult in order to find answers, but he must be able to discover the meaning of the source text. These are skills which can be acquired, but they are essential before the project is undertaken. Some member of the team must provide skill in interpreting the source document.
A translator will, of course, understand the receptor language and culture. He needs to be able to read, write, and speak his language well. Someone who has lived outside the language area for some time may have difficulty making a good translation. He will certainly need to do extensive testing with people who speak fluently.
The above statement applies to cases in which the translator is translating from a second language he has learned into his own language. However, some times translators are translating from their own language into a second language, for example, the official language of their country. In this case, it is very important that there be speakers of the receptor language available to help with the testing and evaluation. These should be persons whose mother-tongue is the receptor language. Even when a translator is translating into his mother-tongue, he will want to check with other speakers of the language to be sure the translation is communicating well the meaning of the source text.
In addition to a good knowledge of the source and receptor languages and cultures, the translator must have skills in cross-language transfer. He must understand translation principles and be able to apply them. He must understand the structural differences between the two languages. If he has had enough linguistic training to compare the two languages, this will help him in the transfer process.
A good translator must be willing to receive help and criticism. He will want to test the translation with other people. When they don’t understand, or when they make suggestions, he needs to be able to accept their ideas without anger or resentment. Otherwise, he will not be able to test the translation adequately and improve the quality.
So far, we have talked mostly about the translator(s). There will be other people involved as well. Sometimes it is well to have testers. The translator himself may do the testing, but often it is an advantage to have others do this. A tester takes the draft of the translation to other people in the community to see if it can be understood clearly and whether or not it communicates the right message. The person who does the testing must also understand translation principles and know the receptor language well. A tester needs to be a person who relates well to other people and knows how to listen carefully and record what is said to him. He will need to make notes of the comments made by those with whom he is testing. His goal is to be sure that the intended audience is able to understand well. He will make suggestions which often make the translation more accurate, clearer or more natural.
In addition to testers, sometimes it is also good to have some reviewers. Reviewers do not need to have had extensive training in translation principles. They are simply people who are interested in the translation and willing to help. They should, however, have an understanding of the concept of idiomatic translation, and a good sense of style and of grammatical structures. Their responsibility is to read through the translation and make comments or ask questions. Their comments are returned to the translator for his use in revision. It is good, if possible, to have a number of reviewers, representing a cross section of the audience. For example, if the translation is intended for a majority of the people, then some reviewers who are well educated, some of average education, and some new readers could be included on the team as reviewers. Both men and women should be included. The purpose is to be sure that the whole range of prospective readers understands easily the message intended in the translation.
In some translation projects there will also be technical people to help such as typists and proofreaders. Often the translator does his own manuscript preparation. However, if technical people are also included on the team it is important that they bring the skills needed and that they know how they fit into the project. It is important that a typist be very accurate and available to work when needed. The typist can expect to prepare the preliminary drafts, often making stencils and duplicating material, so that copies can be sent to testers and reviewers. The typist will need to retype each revision and will eventually prepare the final manuscript. It is important that, before becoming involved in the project, the typist be aware of the work that is involved and have a willingness to retype and retype, as many times as necessary to get a polished copy for the publisher. (A word processor can save hundreds of hours of retyping, however.)
In many translation projects there will also be an advisor or consultant. Even when a translator is completely bilingual and bicultural in the source and receptor languages and cultures, he may want someone with whom he can discuss, both the exegesis of the source text, and the translation equivalences which he has used. Many translators, who are translating from a source text which is written in their second language, will want a consultant to help solve especially difficult problems. Sometimes a person with more linguistic training can be of special help in comparing the two languages, following some of the ideas set up in the previous chapters of this book. To be of real help a consultant should have advanced knowledge of linguistic, of translation principles, and of the source language and culture. In addition, it is helpful if he is familiar with the receptor language or some related language with similar structures. His role is to help by discussing problems, and to assist any members of the team who will need more training before the project can begin. There will be less frustration further on in the program if each one is adequately trained for his job, and if the responsibilities are carefully worked out ahead of time.
The publisher can also be considered part of the team, since without a publisher who is willing to publish the manuscript, the translation would not be completed. The important thing is to plan about publishing before starting the project. Each publisher has special regulations concerning format and supplementary information. The translator will save himself a lot of time later if he knows from the beginning what format he is to use. Also, if he knows how the publisher likes to handle footnotes, glossaries, bibliography, and illustrations, it can be done that way from the beginning. It will save time later, not only for the translator, but especially for the typist and others helping with the manuscript.
The distributors are also important people in the project. Sometimes the publisher is also the distributor. Other people may also be involved. If the translation is to be distributed widely, someone needs to organize publicity and distribution.
And finally, but most important, every project must have a coordinator. It may be the same person as the consultant, or the translator, or one of the testers. But one person must take on this responsibility, with the rest of the team knowing clearly who is doing this important job. The coordinator must help each member of the team do his part of the project well, advising and assisting in many ways.
In some projects, instead of a lot of individuals doing specific jobs, there will be a committee, or committees. Nida (1964:247-251) lists three types of committees which are sometimes a part of a translation project. These are the editorial committee, who do the drafting of the translation, a review committee, who provide special expertise in either the source or receptor language, and the consultative committee, who often simply give their approval to the translation, depending on the situation. If committees are to be used, these should be carefully chosen and the work outlined as part of the establishing of the project. (For more on committees see Nida 1964:247-251)
In addition to deciding on the people who will be involved in the project, and outlining the responsibilities for each member, it is helpful to work out a suggested time table for the project. This will help the members of the team, and/or committee, to know what their commitment is. It usually takes longer than planned, however, and this needs to be considered lest the translation never get finished. There needs to be commitment on the part of all members of the team. When there is a clear understanding of the goals, and agreement on responsibilities and timing, the project is most likely to succeed.

The tools
We turn now to the materials needed for a successful project. Tools is used to refer, not just to the books that will be needed, but to the equipment, work space, and finances as well; that is, all the material aspects of the program. These matters need to be planned before the work gets under way.
First of all, plans should be made for where the work is to be done. A translator working by himself needs a place where he can work free from interruptions. If there is a team working on the project, each member will need a place to carry on their part of the work. And if there is a committee planning to work together it is very important that a special meeting place be planned. This may seem obvious. But the frustration of interruptions, because of lack of a work area, has often discouraged the completion of a translation. The best work will be done under good working conditions. This will need planning ahead of time, and perhaps some financial outlay as well.
What equipment will be needed? Typewriters and a duplicator or photocopy machine are a must. Are these available for the project?
It is especially important that the translator(s) have available the books they will need for reference in studying the source text and culture. A good translator will make use of dictionaries, lexicons, grammars, cultural descriptions, other books written during the same historical period, and any other materials which will help him to have a full understanding of the source text and the culture. These books should be chosen and accumulated at the place where the translation work will be done before the work begins. There may also be books written on the receptor language and culture which will be helpful, including a good dictionary.
Those planning the project must also consider the financial resources available for the program. What will be the source of such income? Who will disperse the funds? What will the salaries be for each member of the team (if salaries are to be paid)? How much will the supplies cost, the books, the training? The main expenses for a translation project (Barnwell 1983a:17) include:
Salary for the translator(s).
Salary for the typist.
Expenses for the translator to attend training courses and sometimes special workshops. This would include the traveling expenses.
Expenses for those who are testing the translation, including traveling expenses, and cost of attending training courses of committee meetings.
Sometimes equipment may need to be bought: typewriter, duplicating machine, desk, etc.
Stationery: paper, stencils, ink, carbon paper, clips, etc.
Cost of duplicating and circulating the trial copies to testers and reviewers.
The expense of publishing. It needs to be determined ahead of time who will be paying for the publishing and distribution.

A translation program has the greatest hope of being successful when the four T’s (text, target, team, and tools) are arranged far before the project is begun. Whoever wishes to establish a project must take a careful look at the text to be sure it should be translated. He should think carefully about who the target audience or readers will be and what effect this will have on the style of the translation. He needs to be sure that people are available to form a team that can work together and complete the work. He must have available the tools needed to do the work, including the funds for paying expenses. Once these matters are in order, the translation work can begin.

EXERCISES-Establishing the project

If you are planning a translation project, write up that project according to the matters discussed in this book: the text, the audience, the alphabet, the team, and the tools. Give a careful description of each aspect of your proposed program, with names, dates, and other details, if possible.
If you do not yet have a specific program in mind, think of one you might be interested in and write it up in the same way, even if it is only imaginary.
If the above program was for translating into your mother-tongue, write up a similar ______ for translating into your second language.